Cross-curricular learning and how it impacts on education

During this blog post, the term ‘cross-curricular’ will be defined along with a debate on whether learning should be divided into single subject categories or not, there will be an explanation of why cross-curricular pedagogy is used and how it impacts on education with regards to the teachers and the students. I will support my views with evidence from theorists and other educational experts as well as integrating the literacy, numeracy and digital competency framework.

‘Cross-curricular’ is a term that is used to describe the way in which the curriculum is designed to ensure that both the teacher and the student are making the most out of their learning. Cross-curricular learning by Savage’s (2010) point of view is “characterised by sensitivity towards, and a synthesis of, knowledge, skills and understandings from various subject areas. These inform an enriched pedagogy that promotes an approach to learning which embraces and explores this wider sensitivity through various methods”. Donaldson (2015, p.36) has a similar way of defining it, as he suggests that it has been an international trend over the years “using ‘areas of learning’ as curriculum organisers, sometimes combining disciplinary learning and wider capabilities or capacities”.

There are three cross-curricular responsibilities; literacy, numeracy and digital competency, the digital competency framework; “focuses on developing digital skills which can be applied to a wide range of subjects and scenarios” (Learning Wales, 2017). Project based learning is a huge part of cross curricular pedagogy as it allows the students to display many skills simultaneously; creativity, digital competency, literacy and numeracy, although these skills are not the main objectives of the project, they are still being developed, whilst allowing the students to expand their knowledge on the chosen topic. Education Scotland (2008) suggests that project based learning is beneficial to students and teachers since “interdisciplinary learning enables teachers and learners to make connections in their learning through exploring clear and relevant links across the curriculum...learning beyond subject boundaries provides learners with the opportunity to experience deep challenging and relevant learning”.  

“Tell me and I will forget; show me and I may remember; involve me and I will understand”

(Wooten et al., 2010)

Many educationalists agree that learning should not be divided into single subject categories and that teachers should now teach in a cross-curricular manner, the Plowden Report proposes that “throughout our discussion of curriculum we stress that children’s learning does not fit into subject categories” (Plowden, 1967, p555). “Cross curricular learning helps to develop metacognitive learners, as metacognitive learners can adapt their learning to new situations” (Shannon, 2008). The vision of many modern curricular designers is that teaching a single subject at a time does not give the students a sense of how the real-world works, as each real- life situation is seen from multiple perspectives and therefore students should be taught the same way. Some other advantages of cross-curricula learning are that it “makes learning more relevant” as it engages the child due to learning topics that they enjoy and will be beneficial to the rest of their life, whilst also putting “key concepts into context”, rather than learning unnecessary subjects that they are aware they will not need once they step out of the classroom (Dean, 2001; Barnes, 2007) because curricula design should not begin from the content but from the learner (Nunan, 1988; Savery and Duffy, 1996).

“At the heart of the educational process lies the child”

(Plowden, 1967, p.9)

Alternatively, there are disadvantages and challenges that come with altering the curriculum and how it is taught, one challenge being that cross curricular learning would not be possible once the student has gone to high school. The reason being that “school timetables are subject based, so parallel pigeonholing of people is convenient” (Kerry, 2015, p.7). Teachers are fixated on content rather than how they can provide their students with authentic knowledge that they can use when they leave school, the reason for this is the high demand of acceptable exam results. Kerry (2015, p.10) makes a statement that “The whole education system designed around ‘tests of content learning reduced to league tables that are de-contextualised to make judgements about schools”, this suggests that the teachers are only teaching their students fixed facts to allow them to pass tests rather than preparing them for their futures. Decent exam results would not be possible whilst learning with a cross curricular method, the lessons would not be able to be structured in a way that would allow the student to acquire enough knowledge to enable them to pass their exams and ultimately, that is the main objective for secondary students. A few other challenges of this curriculum reform are; teachers fearing change after teaching a certain way for so long, needing specialist staff to teach specialist subjects through projects and lastly, the difficulty of tracking progress through assessments.

Cross-curricular assessments can make it very difficult for the teachers; from planning each lesson with objectives to tracking the students’ progress using marking criteria which may be problematic to create, this is due to judging project based assessments rather than written ones. Dean (2001) was concerned that subject teaching would be watered down so excessively, that it may cause progression to lack and may result in superficial, repetitive teaching. However, it can essentially improve grades due to the authenticity of the tasks, the children will be enjoying themselves as well as feeling motivated and ultimately, that is the most important thing.   

To conclude, this blog post has given detailed definitions of what ‘cross-curricular’ means, it has also touched upon the fact that literacy, numeracy and digital competency are the three main responsibilities of the new curriculum reform. Although these responsibilities are not the main objectives, they are still being developed through project based assessments. There are many advantages as well as disadvantages of this new method of teaching, one advantage being that it gives students a sense of authenticity within their learning and allows them to be creative as this way of learning is less restrictive. One disadvantage of cross-curricular pedagogy is that it makes it difficult for teachers to assess learning and track progress, having said this, cross-curricular teaching seems to be the way forward and has many benefits for both the students and the teachers.

(Kent and Cameron, 2017)

 References

Barnes, J., Shirley, I. (2007). Strangely familiar: cross curricular and creative thinking in teacher education, Improving schools, vol. 10. No. 2. p./ 289-306.

Dean, J. (2001). Organising Learning in the Primary Classroom (3rd edn). London: Routledge.

Department of Education (2008) A framework for learning and teaching. Edinburgh: Scottish Government.Available at: https://www.education.gov.scot/Documents/btc3.pdf (Accessed: 29/11/2017).

Donaldson, G., (2015). Successful futures: Independent review of curriculum and assessment arrangements in Wales. Welsh Government.

Duffy, T. M., & Cunningham, D. J. (1996). Constructivism: Implications for the design and delivery of instruction. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology. New York: Macmillan.

Katz, L. and Chard, S.C., (2000). Engaging children's minds: The project approach. Greenwood Publishing Group.

Kent, J., Cameron, M. (2017) 'Pioneer Schools, the new Curriculum and Professional Learning', EAS Wales, 17th February. Available at: https://sewales.org.uk/Pioneer-Schools/James-Kent-Blog/17-February-2017.aspx (Accessed: 30/11/2017).

Kerry, T. ed., (2015). Cross-curricular teaching in the primary school: Planning and facilitating imaginative lessons (pp.7-10). Routledge.

Learning Wales (2017) Digital Competence Framework. Available at: http://learning.gov.wales/resources/browse-all/digital-competence-framework/?lang=en (Accessed: 29/11/2017).

Nunan, D., (1988). The learner-centred curriculum: A study in second language teaching. Cambridge University Press.

Plowden, Lady Bridget. (1967). Children and Their Primary schools: A report of the Central Advisory Council for Education, Volume 1. London: HMSO, pp.9.

Plowden, Lady Bridget. (1967). Children and Their Primary schools: A report of the Central Advisory Council for Education, Volume 1. London: HMSO, pp.555.

Savage, J., (2010). Cross-curricular teaching and learning in secondary education. Routledge.

Savery, J.R. and Duffy, T.M., (1995). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. Educational technology, 35(5), pp.31-38.

Shannon, S.V., (2008). Using metacognitive strategies and learning styles to create self-directed learners. Institute for Learning Styles Journal, 1(1), pp.14-28.

Wooten, D., Mack, K. and Azzam, A., (2010), June. TELL ME AND I WILL FORGET; SHOW ME AND I MAY REMEMBER; INVOLVE ME AND I WILL UNDERSTAND: TRACKING INQUIRY IN A PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING CURRICULUM. In JOURNAL OF GENERAL INTERNAL MEDICINE (Vol. 25, pp. 451-451). 233 SPRING ST, NEW YORK, NY 10013 USA: SPRINGER.

Collaboration

During this blog post, the definition of collaboration and cooperation will be explained, along with comparing them. It will then go on to demonstrate how collaboration is used in primary schools and how it has such an impact on education.

The definition of collaboration is working with one or more people to achieve a common goal (Dillenbourg et al.1996; Kirschner et al. 2009; Nokes-Malach et al. 2015). Cooperation is very similar as it is defined by the Cambridge English Dictionary (2017) as “the act of working together with someone or doing what they ask you”. The definitions may not seem so different however, it is the act itself that separates the two, during collaboration, all parties are as equally involved as each other but, throughout cooperation there is the possibility of having one person that dominates the group entirely.  

"The emphasis has shifted from individual efforts to group work, from independence

to community” (Leonard and Leonard, 2001). Collaboration has become a 21^st Century trend in primary schools due to the benefits it has on education and the children’s engagement as “the need in society to think and work together has increased” (Austin, 2000; Welch, 1998).  Collaboration can be implemented simply by involving the students in group activities for example; problem solving, debating and group reading exercises. This enhances their learning as it is more fun and engaging than working alone, not only does this engage the children but also increases their ability to learn, even if each child has different learning abilities, they will be sharing their thoughts and ideas with each other to produce outcomes and therefore demonstrates that “two heads are better than one” (Heywood, 1546).

There are more complex ways for children to collaborate and an example of this is by implementing a foreign exchange programme. Recently, we have had Year 5 students join us in a lecture, we had to talk to the children about the topics they enjoy learning about and one child explained how she was travelling to Denmark to learn about their country and culture. Whilst she learns about Denmark, some students from a primary school in Denmark will be travelling to Wales to learn about our country and culture. A foreign exchange programme is a very good example of collaboration as it allows the students to interact with people out of their comfort zone and may even come across challenges such as language barriers. Once the children have finished their expedition, they will return to their countries and present their findings and their adventures to their classmates.

Talking is one of the most important forms of communication and it is ‘a vital tool which we use to interpret and make sense of our experiences’ (Lloyd and Beard, 1995). Communication is key to everything that education has to offer, Barnes (1976, p.73) proposes that “learning to communicate is at the heart of education”. The basics of communication must be taught for the child to understand what is going on around them, the failure of this will cause the child to be at risk of feeling isolated and alone, whilst the children who are able to communicate will be introduced to a whole world, full of new and exciting experiences that they can endure. Communication is taught even before you can talk, this is through a method called scaffolding.

Vygotsky developed a concept called the Zone of Proximal Development (1978, P.86), which is also known as scaffolding. His theory suggested that if you gave a student an activity that was just outside of their comfort zone and capability, and provided them with support from a teacher then using this method, the teacher would offer a lot of assistance at first but then by gradually reducing the amount of support, the child will learn to figure things out on their own but without allowing them to become frustrated or dependant (Learningdiveristy.org, 2013).

“What others first did for the child and the child next learned to do for himself, speaking aloud as did others, he has now learned to do for himself”

(Garvey, 1984, p. 215)

To conclude, collaboration is a huge phenomenon that has been brought to 21^st Century pedagogy and has proved to have a beneficial impact on children due to the method being more engaging, fun and therefore enabling the students to learn not only from the teacher, but also from their class peers. Collaboration can be achieved through simple group activities but also more complex activities such as foreign exchange programmes and gives the children a sense of authenticity throughout their education. Also in this blog post it has been mentioned that talking plays a big part in collaboration as it allows students to communicate and listen to each other as well as learning off each other. Studies have shown that students can achieve a deeper understanding of concepts and make better progress in their learning when they complete group activities rather than working alone (Johnson & Johnson, 1981; Schwartz, 1995). Barron (2000) agrees with this as he states that “students who participate in group learning task tend to perform better when assessed than those who had only worked individually”, the method ‘scaffolding’ contributes greatly to the reason that children perform better working with others.

 (Whitby and Anderson, 2014)

References

Austin, J.E. (2000). Principles for Partnership. Journal of Leader to Leader. 18 (Fall), pp. 44-50.

Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to curriculum. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Barron, B. (2003). When smart groups fail. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 12(3), 307-359.

Dillenbourg, P. (1999). Collaborative learning: Cognitive and Computational approaches: Advances in Learning and Instruction. Pergamon: London.

Garvey, C. (1984) Children’s Talk. London: Fontana.

Heywood, J. (1546). A Dialogue Conteinyng the Nomber in Effect of all the Prouerbes in the Englishe Tongue. Classic Books.

Johnson, R.T. and Johnson, D.W., (1982). What research says about student–student interaction in science classrooms. Education in the, 80, pp.25-37.

Kirschner, F., Paas, F. & Kirschner, P.A. Educ Psychol Rev (2009) 21: 31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-008-9095-2

Learning Diversity . (2013). Piaget, Vygotsky, and the Pedagogy of Learning Diversity. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.learningdiversity.org/2013/04/piaget-vygotsky-and-the-pedagogy-of-learning-diversity/. [Accessed: 24/11/2017].

Leonard, P.E. & Leonard, L.J. (2001). The collaborative prescription: Remedy or reverie? International Journal of Leadership in Education, 4(4); pp. 383 99.

Lloyd, C., & Beard, J. (1995). Managing classroom collaboration. (Cassell Practical Handbooks). London: Cassell.

Nokes-Malach, T., & Richey, E.,  & Gadgil, S., (2015). When Is It Better to Learn Together? Insights from Research on Collaborative Learning. Springer: New York.

Schwartz, D.L., (1995). The emergence of abstract representations in dyad problem solving. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 4(3), pp.321-354.

The Cambridge English Dictionary (2017) Meaning of Cooperation. Available at: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/cooperation (Accessed: 24/11/2017).

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Welch, M. (1998). Collaboration: Staying on the bandwagon. Journal of Teacher Education; 49(1), pp. 26 38.

Whitby, T. and Anderson, S.W., (2014). The relevant educator: How connectedness empowers learning. Corwin Press.

Creativity in education

During this blog post I will be demonstrating different definitions of the word ‘creativity’ and explaining how it can enrich a child’s experience whilst learning within the classroom but also through outside activities. Examples of my own practical experiences will be used throughout, to demonstrate how being creative and imaginative impacts on a child’s thirst for knowledge.

‘Creativity’ can be a difficult term to define as it can be used in many contexts. According to a YouTube video created by OnSide Learning (2013), creativity is “the ability to express, apply and put into action thoughts and/or ideas from the imagination”, they then gave a definition of the word ‘imagination’ meaning “seeing and thinking of the unknown”.  Creativity is not as simple as just ‘having ideas’, it is necessary for connections to be made between old and new ideas and utilising those ideas, turning them into something practical and valuable. This view resonates with Koestler (1964, p. 95) who states that creativity is “the ability to make connections between previously unconnected ideas” and the National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Education report (1999, p. 30) expresses creativity as “imaginative activity fashioned to produce outcomes that are both original and of value”.

*I have attached the full version of the creativity video below for your perusal*
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3khcyilcpjE

Although it is helpful to understand words by their definitions, whether that be by one definition or several, ‘creativity’ is different, as it can sometimes be problematic when defining it. Duffy (2006, p.16) suggests that defining creativity can “restrict creativity to being only related to the arts e.g. painting, music.” Some of the more artistic children would find this definition sufficient but the children who are more creative in an academic sense, may feel as though they are being overlooked. Duffy also proposes that some definitions of ‘creativity’ may “Include stereotypical ideas e.g. that certain groups of people are naturally creative”, a lot of definitions state that creativity is a talent that some children are born with and others are not however, that is not the case as creativity can be taught in some circumstances, “if you train yourself, and there are different methods for doing this, you can become more creative” (Schrift, 2014).

“Authentic learning is a process that focuses on real-world, complex problems and potential solutions, utilizing role-playing exercises, alternative thinking, case presentations, and participation in both virtual and real communities of practice” (Swartz, 2016). Outdoor Matters (2011) agrees with Swartz by asserting that the benefits of outdoor learning creates a positive impact on well-being, you can gain more experiences, natural play materials are at hand and the environment provides the children with opportunities for imagination and creativity. In 2011, Estyn inspectors tried to urge schools in Wales to promote more outdoor learning (BBC News, 2011). Since then, forest schools are used in a wide variety of schools that have access to a forest environment and these sessions are driven by the students to encourage them to follow their interests and learn whilst doing so (Outdoor Learning Wales, 2015).

In Wales, forest schools have become a huge phenomenon and rightly so, due to the amazing benefits that come with learning outdoors. During a seminar we joined Year 5 students in our outdoor learning center to observe authentic learning first hand. We carried out different tasks using natural resources only to try and allow the children to be one with nature and they all took to it extremely well. One task that we carried out; the children had to find an object within the woods for example; a stick and ask themselves ‘if this was not a stick, then what would it be?’ some of the answers that the children came up with were; a gun, a wand or a sword. Another task that was set was; all the children had to become someone or somethings else for example; a mythical creature, a king or even a queen, they then had to ask each other questions about the character that they were pretending to be, an example of this is; one child decided to become a dragon, one of the questions the ‘dragon’ was asked was ‘do you breathe fire?’ but the child responded ‘no, I breathe ice’. By completing this task, the children were able to role play and expand their imagination as much as they wanted to as there were no right or wrong answers.

Throughout the session the children were engaged and having fun, and this benefits the students as it allows them to gain more knowledge, as they will subconsciously associate an object or a fun memory with positive feelings and therefore remember the topic and the facts that they are learning (Schiefele, 1991).

In conclusion, ‘creativity’ has more than one definition however, it is preferred that the word is not defined, as it may affect how children decide to use it in and out of the classroom. Having an open definition allows the child to decide for themselves what ‘creativity’ means to them alone, even if it means different things to each of them. Also, creativity allows for authenticity, especially when they are leaning outdoors, as they can broaden their imagination and enable all of their ‘real-life’ worries to subside.

Our heart logo made from natural resources 

 (Outdoor Learning Wales, 2017)

Our fairy house in the woods

                        

References

BBC News (2011) Estyn calls for more outdoor learning in Welsh schools. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-politics-14793794 (Accessed: 17/11/2017).

Duffy, B (2006) Supporting creativity and imagination in the early years. 2^nd Edn. Berkshire: Open University Press.

Koestler, A. (1964)  The act of creation.  London: Hutchinson & Co

N.A.C.C.C.E. (1999)  All our futures: creativity, culture and education. London: DfEE

OnSide Learning (2013) Education- Creativity. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3khcyilcpjE (Accessed: 14/11/2017).

Outdoor Learning Wales (2015) A guide to forest schools in Wales. Available at: http://www.outdoorlearningwales.org/images/uploads/resources/files/Guide_to_Forest_School_Booklet(Eng)FINAL.pdf (Accessed: 17/11/17).

Outdoor Learning Wales (2017) Outdoor Learning Wales Network Group. Available at: http://www.outdoorlearningwales.org/network-groups/gwynedd_fei_cluster_group (Accessed: 17/11/2017).

Outdoor Matters (2011) Effective Practice: Outdoor Learning. Available at: http://outdoormatters.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/EYFS-Effective-PracticeOutdoor-Learning.pdf (Accessed: 17/11/2017).

Schiefele, U. (1991) 'Interest, Learning and Motivation', Educational Psychologist, 26 (3-4), pp. 299-323. Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00461520.1991.9653136 (Accessed:17/11/2017)

Schrift, R. (2014) Can Creativity be taught?. Available at: http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/can-creativity-be-taught/ (Accessed: 14/11/2017).

Swartz, M. (2016) 'Promoting Authentic Learning for Our Students ', Journal of Paediatric Health and Care, 30 (5), pp. 405.

Creativity and Education

This post will be exploring different definitions and meanings of creativity as well as how creativity can impact on and be developed by schools.  

“As a result of growing recognition that creativity is an important element of economic prosperity, governments around the world have turned their attention to how children and young people might acquire the necessary attributes of creativity as part of their education” (Wise and Ferrari, 2015. p.30). “Creativity (including inquisitive comprehension, problem finding, and collaborative discussions) is perceived as a core skill to redefine the goals of education in the new millennium” (Binkley et al., 2012, cited in Wise and Ferrari, 2015. p.31).

“The seminal UK government commissioned report ‘All our futures’  emphasised the importance of a kind of transdisciplinary creativity that saw creativity applicable to all subjects in the curriculum” (Wyse and Ferrari, 2015. p. 31). The definition of creativity used in the National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Education report was, “imaginative activity fashioned so as to produce outcomes that are both original and of value” (NACCCE, 1999, p. 30). The NACCCE suggested that “creativity is possible in all areas of human activity, including the arts, sciences, at work at play and in all other areas of daily life. All people have creative abilities and we all have them differently. When individuals find their creative strengths, it can have an enormous impact on self-esteem and on overall achievement” (NACCCE 1999, p.6).

A research and development project, undertaken by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) in England, aimed to help teachers both find and promote creativity. It proposed a policy framework which characterises creativity in education as involving “posing questions, making connections, being imaginative, exploring options and engaging in critical reflection/evaluation” (Cremin et al, 2006).

“Primary education in the UK has long been regarded as notable for its creative elements” (Wise and Ferrari, 2015. p.31). Qualitative researchers identified school culture and context as key to the development of creative primary schools, aspects drawn out in Davies et al.’s (2013) systematic review included the following. Firstly, the physical environment and the flexible use of space and resources, provision of appropriate materials and tools, including formless and digital ones, working outdoors and beyond the classroom, for example, in galleries and museums. Secondly, the pedagogical environment where children offered control and appropriate risk-taking, teachers balancing freedom and structure; using playful/games-based approaches, enabling children to set their own pace; mutual respect, dialogue and flexibility between staff and pupils; modelling creative attitudes; high expectations; encouraging collaborative work. Finally, the use of the outdoor environment. There is reasonable evidence across several studies that “taking pupils out of the classroom and working in an outdoor environment for part of their time in school can foster their creative development” (Davies et al, 2013). “A Forest School is an approach to outdoor education which offers an alternative teaching environment, to complement the indoor curriculum” (Davies et al, 2013). In his 2006 study, Borradaile concluded that the “characteristics of forest schools as ‘creative environments’ include use of a local woodland setting, providing freedom to explore using multiple senses and intelligences, and time and space for individual learning styles to be recognised and nurtured” (Davies et al, 2013).

Furthermore, research in America has found that “children who play in natural environments undertake more creative, diverse and imaginative play; which is seen as an important element in children's development. They engage in more explorative play and activities when in natural spaces that they can adapt and modify to meet their own needs” (O’Brien and Murray, 2007). Isaacs, (in Knight, 2013) recognised “the need for children to have time and space for making their own choices and expressing their creative spirit”.

The Forest School is an open ended environment and encourages children to interact with any materials they find there. Simon Nicholson’s theory of loose parts, proposes that access to different materials that can be moved, carried, combined, redesigned, lined up, and taken apart and put back together in multiple ways, encourages children’s creativity and a greater range of opportunities. He suggests “in any environment, both the degree of inventiveness and creativity, and the possibility of discovery, are directly proportional to the number and kind of variables in it” (Nicholson, 1972). 

There are many ways in which creativity can be developed through outdoor learning. During a Forest School session at Cardiff Metropolitan University, year 5 children from Llanedeyrn Primary School took part in many activities which inspired and encouraged creativity in an outdoor environment. The first task for this group was to look in detail at the lines on their hands, they then had to find some material, such as a tree or a leaf, with lines on which were similar to the ones on their hand. The children were allowed to explore the forestry with limited boundaries or time limits in order to achieve their goal. They then had to use their imagination to think about other uses for the material that they chose, such as “a house for a fairy to live” or “a fairy poem”. The children were then instructed to use role play in relation to their findings. After this, in accordance with Nicholson’s theory of loose parts, children were told to choose ‘special’ objects in the forest that they could use such as twigs, leaves or any other natural materials. The children were then encouraged to use their imagination by pretending that their object was something else. For example, when presenting to the class, one child proposed that “this stick is not actually a stick, it’s a fairy wand”. The other children were then encouraged to ask questions about the special object, such as “what is the wand used for” which allowed all pupils to use their imaginations even further. Although the activities were structured and pre-planned, the children were allowed to explore the forestry to appropriate lengths with no interruption and they used their imaginations and creativity skills to complete the activities. 

There are also many other ways of encouraging creativity in the forest school. As pictured below, in our sessions in the woods we were using our imaginations and creative thinking skills to build 'shelters' to protect ourselves from all the elements after our 'plane crash' and we used loose objects to create our teams' logo (a heart shape). 

References 

Binkley, M., Erstad, O., Herman, J., Raizen, S., Ripley, M. & Rumble, M. (2012) Defining 21st century skills, in: P. Griffin, B. McGaw, E. Care (Eds) Assessment and teaching of 21st century skills (Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London and New York, Springer), 17–66.

Cremin, T., Burnard, P. and Craft, A. (2006) Pedagogy and possibility thinking in the early years. Thinking Skills and Creativity. Vol 1, Pages 108-119.

Davies, D., Jindal-Snape, D., Collier, C., Digby, R., Hay, P. and Howe, A. (2013) Creative learning environments in education. Pages 80-91.  Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2012.07.004. Accessed: 06/11/2017.

Knight, S (2013) Forest School and Outdoor Learning in the Early Years. Second Edition. 

National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Education (NACCCE) (1999) All our futures: Creativity, culture and education.

Nicholson, S. (1972) Studies in Design Education Craft and Technology. The theory of loose parts, an important principle for design methodology. Volume 4, No. 2.

O’Brien, L. and Murray, R. (2007) Forest School and its impacts on young children. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening. Volume 6, Pages 249-265. 

Wise, D. & Ferrari, A. (2015) British Educational Research Journal ‘Creativity and education: comparing the national curricula of the states of the European Union and the United Kingdom’ DOI: 10.1002. 

The purposes of education and my pedagogical beliefs

Pedagogy has been defined as “the method and practice of teaching, especially as an academic subject or theoretical concept” (Stevenson, 2010). However, Professor Donaldson goes further than just looking at teaching in the narrow sense of methods used and suggests that pedagogy “represents the considered selection of those methods in light of the purposes of the curriculum and the needs and developmental stage of the children and young people” (Donaldson, 2015, p.63).

This post will outline my beliefs regarding the methods and practice of teaching in primary education. In keeping with Donaldson’s (2015) view, my pedagogical beliefs shall be related to my views on the purpose of education. Therefore this post begins with a discussion of the purpose of education and leads to my pedagogical beliefs.

To begin, I believe that primary education should prioritise the development of skills, knowledge and self-discipline, as well as the process of cultural transmission which children and young people will use and continue to develop throughout their lives. “Cultural transmission refers to the transfer of the knowledge, values, and ideas within a population. The transfer of information is based on social learning specifically” (Hershberger, 2005). 

This view resonates with a 2015 speech to the Education Reform Summit, in which Gibb claimed that “education is the engine of our economy, it is the foundation of our culture and we must ensure that more people have the knowledge and skills they need to succeed in a demanding economy”. He also added that “education is about the practical business of ensuring that young people receive the preparation they need for adult life, to secure a good job and a fulfilling career”. In addition to this, it has been argued that “education must provide young people with the necessary knowledge and skills to become responsible global citizens who can take joint actions” (Anderson, 2013). Furthermore, Anderson (2013) also proposes that “it is essential to prioritise knowledge and skills that are linked to 21st century livelihoods, conflict resolution and sustainable development. These skills include critical thinking, problem solving, and relevant content knowledge’. 

In 1916, influential educator E. Cubberly wrote: ‘‘Our schools are, in a sense, factories in which the raw products (children) are to be shaped and fashioned into products to meet the various demands of life’’ (in Leland & Kasten, 2002, p. 8). However, Goodlad (1984) “rejects the ‘relatively simplistic input/output factory model’ and argues that schools are better understood as ‘little villages in which individuals interact on a part-time basis within a relatively constrained and confining environment’” (in Leland & Kasten, 2002, p.10). “In accordance with Goodlad’s analogy, Reich (1989) argues that students (inhabitants of the village) should learn how to ‘‘share their understandings and build on each other’s insights’’ rather than being trained for a type of high-volume standardised production” (in Leland & Kasten, 2002, p. 11). “Dewey (1916) supported the same line of thinking when he described school as primarily a social institution that should represent real life. He viewed schools as institutions that functioned best as authentic social communities” (in Leland & Kasten, 2002, p. 11). King Jr (1947) suggested that “education must enable a man to become more efficient, to achieve with increasing facility the legitimate goals of his life. Education must also train one for quick, resolute and effective thinking”. 

Other statements of educational purpose have also been widely accepted, for example, “to develop the intellect, to serve social needs, to contribute to the economy, to create an effective work force, to prepare students for a job or career, to promote a particular social or political system” (Forshay, 1991).

According to Donaldson (2015), the overall purposes of the curriculum in Wales should be that “children and young people develop as: 

› ambitious, capable learners, ready to learn throughout their lives

› enterprising, creative contributors, ready to play a full part in life and work

› ethical, informed citizens of Wales and the world

› healthy, confident individuals, ready to lead fulfilling lives as valued members of society”.

Donaldson (2015) developed twelve pedagogical principles which “teachers should apply when planning their teaching and learning, to ensure that the activities relate directly to the curriculum purposes” (p.71). These principles are: 

• the pedagogy should maintain a consistent focus on the overall purposes of the curriculum
• all learners should be encouraged to recognise the importance of sustained effort in meeting expectations
• Employ a blend of approaches including direct teaching
• Promote problem solving, creative and critical thinking
• Set tasks and select resources that build on previous knowledge and experience and engage interest
• create authentic contexts for learning
• Employ assessment for learning principles
• Areas of Learning and Experience 
• Cross-curricula responsibilities including literacy, numeracy and digital competence 
• encourage children and young people to take increasing responsibility for their own learning
• Support social and emotional development and positive relationships 
• Encourage collaboration. 

In my opinion, the most important pedagogical principles are to create authentic contexts for learning, and to encourage collaboration. To elaborate, I believe children learn better when they know why they’re being taught something and can relate it to real-life situations, and when they “see the relevance in their learning to the world beyond the school gates” (Donaldson 2015, p.67). An example of a context for authentic and meaningful learning would be a forest school. When in the surroundings of nature, I believe children are automatically encouraged to be more creative, imagination and explorative, therefore developing learning that is meaningful and authentic and of much more use to them than looking at pictures or watching videos of nature. 

I believe collaboration in education is fundamental to the successful learning of children and young people. Collaboration is “an act that involves groups working together to solve a problem or reach a goal” (MacGregor, 1990). Barnes and Todd argue that “by setting aside the traditional teaching model learning becomes a social experience, putting pupils into situations where they will be confronted with opposing views requiring negotiation and learning that perhaps others’ viewpoints may be just as valid as their own” (1977, p. 127). 

In conclusion, this post has explored different definitions of pedagogy and has outlined many views on the purposes of education. It is predominantly clear that education has many purposes but I believe Donaldson (2015) covers them perfectly in his report. Following from these views, this post has examined Donaldson’s twelve pedagogical principles and elaborated on the two that I believe are most important, authenticity and collaboration.

References

Anderson, A (2013)  Knowledge and Skills for Becoming Global Citizens. Education Plus Development.

Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to curriculum. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Dewey, J. (1916) Democracy and education. New York: McMillan.

Donaldson, G. (2015) Successful Futures: Independent review of curriculum and assessments in Wales. Welsh Government.

Foshay, A. (1991) Journal of Curriculum and Supervision ‘The Curriculum Matrix: Transcendence and Mathematics’. Vol 6, No. 4, Page 277.

Gibb, N. (2015) ‘The purpose of education’  The Department for Education. 

Hershberger, S. (2005) Cultural Transmission. Encyclopedia of Statistics in Behavioural Science. 

King Jr, M. (1947) ‘The purpose of education’ The Maroon Tiger. DOI: 125.223.1.156

Leland, C. & Kasten, W. (2002) Literacy Education for the 21st Century: It’s Time to Close the Factory. Vol. 18. Issue 1.

Macgregor, J. (1990), Collaborative learning: Shared inquiry as a process of reform. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 1990: 19–30. DOI: 10.1002/tl.37219904204.

Stevenson, A. (2010) Oxford dictionary of English. University Press USA.

The Purpose of Education and My Pedagogical Beliefs

This blog post will focus on my pedagogical beliefs and the purpose of primary education, whilst using secondary sources to back up my views.

So, how is pedagogy defined?

Pedagogy by my definition, is the way in which teaching is put into practice in an educational setting, Stevenson (2010, P.1309) agrees with this by stating that “the method and practice of teaching, especially as an academic subject or theoretical concept”. Another more complex definition is that pedagogy cannot be fixed to one definition and it also does not only focus on the teacher but also the students, “Pedagogy is a complex concept of which student and practicing teachers need to have an understanding, yet there remain many ambiguities about what the term means, and how it informs learning in the classroom” (Waring and Evans, 2015).

Donaldson (2015) developed the twelve pedagogical principles that should be considered when teaching in and out of the classroom to ensure that the best outcomes are reached with regards to the pedagogy and the students learning. These pedagogical principles are:

·         Overall purpose

·         Mind-set and power of effort

·         Blended teaching

·         Deepening thinking: critical and creative

·         Building on prior learning and engagement

·         Meaningful and authentic

·         Areas for learning

·         Making powerful connections

·         Cross-curricular expectations

·         Learning autonomy (learning to learn)

·         Positive relationships

·         Collaboration

The most important pedagogical beliefs in my opinion are; for lessons to be meaningful and authentic therefore being passionate about the subjects you are teaching and transferring the passion to the students. Also by using nature as an outdoor learning tool, this enables the lesson to become more authentic by allowing the students to use their senses e.g. smell, sound, sight, touch and taste. As this is more interesting than merely showing them pictures and videos of nature. Collaboration and cross-curricula learning are also my main beliefs as Donaldson believes that cross curricula learning in education is the way forward. Cross curricula learning is intertwining subjects together, for example; maths and technology, to enhance learning and create a new method of pedagogy, the historical association (2017) supports this saying that “Cross-curricular work offers a creative way to develop children's knowledge, skills and understanding while motivating them to learn through stimulating, interconnected topics”. On the other hand, there are challenges that may arise whilst trying to accommodate to the new method of teaching, one being that it is more difficult for teachers to communicate with each other with regards to what parts of the curriculum they have already covered and what is still left to cover. Earp (2016) wrote an online teaching article and she agrees that it can be a challenge as she stated that “Getting everyone on the same page about the demands of the curriculum framework was also a challenge. Many high schools use textbooks and that helps align their teaching, we don’t and subsequently had a bit of “choose your own adventure” happening at times, or folk who were a bit lost. We also have several classes with part-time teachers and this made communication that bit more tricky”.

There are many purposes of education but from my point of view, ‘Education is the development of autonomous and creative thinkers’, in other words it should enable children to be creative, imaginative and allowing them to gain important skills that can be transferred to their day to day lives, throughout, not only their childhood but their adulthood too. Donaldson (2015, P.29) agrees with this as he developed the four main purposes of the curriculum in education which include students being; 

·         “Ambitious, capable learners, ready to learn throughout their lives”

·         ’‘Enterprising, creative contributors, ready to play a full part in life and work”

·         ’‘Ethical, informed citizens of Wales and the world”

·         “Healthy, confident individuals, ready to lead fulfilling lives as valued members of society.” 

By these quotes, I believe that Donaldson means that all children should be passionate and motivated to learn, which will enable them to succeed. Children should develop their own ideas, be creative and imaginative to prove that they can think for themselves, which will enable them to one day, find work and thrive in anything they choose to do. Young children should learn what is morally right and wrong, to develop themselves emotionally, socially and intellectually, whilst behaving in the correct manner within society, whilst considering the laws and legislations in this country and in other countries around the world. Lastly, Donaldson suggests that to be successful, children should stay positive, confident, active and healthy and understand what is needed to succeed within the community throughout the rest of their life. Another view that agrees with the above statements with regards to the purpose of education is Noddings (2012, P.25), as she says that “A primary purpose of schooling in a democratic society is to produce thoughtful citizens who can deliberate and make wise choices.” I believe that she does not want children to sit in a classroom to be spoken at but to be spoken to. Instead of drumming fixed facts and figures into a child’s head, she would like the children to think for themselves and question what they are being taught, this important skill is also known as thinking critically.

To conclude, pedagogy is one of the key factors to give children the best chance of learning. There are many types of pedagogy but Donaldson has developed the twelve pedagogical principles to ensure that teachers enable their students to reach their highest potential, in and out of the classroom. Not only does pedagogy in education help you reach your goals of passing standardised tests and exams but it also gives students an idea of the way in which life works and gives them a head start with regards to gaining qualifications and being the best person they possibly can be throughout the rest of their lives.

(Find real life, no dates)

References

Donaldson, G. (2015) Successful Futures – Report on the Curriculum and Assessment Arrangements in Wales. P.29. Available from UWTSD.ac.uk [Accessed 08/11/2017].

Donaldson, G. (2015). Successful futures: Independent review of curriculum and assessment arrangements in Wales. Welsh Government.

Earp, J. (2016) Teacher. Available at: https://www.teachermagazine.com.au/articles/navigating-the-challenges-of-cross-curricular (Accessed: 08/11/2017).

Historical Association (2017) Cross-curricula learning. Available at: https://www.history.org.uk/primary/categories/793/module/3638/leading-primary-history/3653/cross-curricular-learning (Accessed: 08/11/2017).

Noddings, N. (2013). Education and democracy in the 21st century. New York: Teachers College Press.

Find Real Life (No Dates) Kids on the V.I.N.E. Available at: http://findreallife.com/kids-on-the-v-i-n-e/ (Accessed: 17/11/2017).

Stevenson, A. (Ed.). (2010). Oxford dictionary of English. Oxford University Press, USA

Waring, M., Evans, C. (2015) Understanding Pedagogy. New York: Routledge.